FIGURES OF SPEECH (Part 1)

 

How should the Bible be interpreted? Literally or figuratively? The answer is both. When the writing is literal, it should be interpreted literally. When it's figurative, then the meaning should also be taken figuratively. Our goal as readers is always to grasp what the writer originally intended to say. The process of interpretation can sometimes be challenging because the authors often use figures of speech that are unfamiliar to us as modern readers.

If we can recognize what kind of figure of speech is being used, it becomes easier for us to understand the passages. Below are some of the commonly used figures of speech in the Bible:

1. SIMILE

This involves a formal comparison because it uses "like" or "as." Usually, the images used for comparison are familiar objects in biblical settings. These are easy to recognize, as in the following examples:

• "As a father has compassion on his children, so the Lord has compassion on those who fear him." (Psalm 103:13)

• "Be alert and of sober mind. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour." (1 Peter 5:8)

• "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, and you were not willing." (Matthew 23:37)

2. METAPHOR

Here, the comparison is more direct because it doesn’t use "like" or "as." A metaphor is an implied comparison, so readers are expected to understand the thought behind the statement. Let’s look at a few examples:

In Genesis 49, Jacob used several metaphors to describe his sons:

• “You are a lion’s cub, Judah” (v. 9)

• “Issachar is a rawboned donkey” (v. 14)

• “Dan will be a snake by the roadside” (v. 17)

• “Naphtali is a doe set free” (v. 21)

• “Joseph is a fruitful vine” (v. 22), etc.

The “I Am” statements of Jesus in the Gospel of John (“I am the bread of life,” 6:35; “I am the light of the world,” 8:12; “I am the gate for the sheep,” 10:7; etc.) are also examples of metaphors.

There are also metaphors where the subject being compared (the topic) is not directly stated, so you need to check the context to understand. In Mark 14:27, Jesus quoted, “For it is written: ‘I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered.’” The context reveals that He was referring to Himself as the shepherd, and the sheep were His disciples.

3. METONYMY

Metonymy occurs when one thing is used as a substitute for another. It’s the replacement of one name or concept with another closely related one. Sometimes the things being substituted are related as cause and effect. Consider these examples:

• The “blood of Jesus” refers to His death on the cross (Acts 20:28; Rom. 3:25; 1 Pet. 1:2; etc.). In His crucifixion (cause), His blood was shed (effect).

• “Throne” (2 Sam. 7:13; 1 Chron. 17:12; Ps. 45:6; etc.) is used to refer to kingship. Obviously, when someone becomes king (cause), he sits on the throne (effect).

• “Moses” is used to refer to the Torah/Law of Moses or his writings (Luke 16:29; 2 Cor. 3:15). Through Moses (cause), the Law was given (effect).

4. SYNECDOCHE

Synecdoche is when a part of something is used to refer to the whole, or the whole is used to refer to a part. For example:

• In Romans 12:1, Paul says, “offer your bodies as a living sacrifice.” Does this mean we don’t offer our minds, emotions, time, or talents? No—the “body” represents the whole person. Here, the part stands for the whole.

• In Luke 2:1, the writer says, “that all the world should be registered” for the Roman census. Clearly, this doesn’t mean every country in the entire world had to register! What’s meant is the “entire Roman world,” or all the areas under Roman rule at that time. Here, the whole is used to represent the part.

5. EUPHEMISM

A euphemism is the use of a more pleasant or acceptable term in place of one that may sound harsh or offensive. It's substituting a “rough” word with one that sounds “softer” or more polite. Examples include:

• Since death was a heavy topic for ancient people, they often used gentler expressions such as “fell asleep” (Matt. 27:52; John 11:11; Acts 7:60; etc.); “slept with their fathers” (1 Kings 2:10; 2 Chron. 9:31; etc.); and “gathered with their people” (Gen. 49:33; Deut. 32:50; etc.).

• In Judges 19:22, the crowd demands that the Levite guest be brought out, saying, “Bring out the man who came into your house, that we may know him.” The word “know” here is a euphemism for sexual activity. In other words, the crowd intended to know the Levite intimately by sexually assaulting him.

DEALING WITH FIGURES OF COMPARISON

Figures of comparison are figures of speech that show similarities, such as simile and metaphor. These are among the most commonly used in the Bible. Here are a few guidelines that can help in interpreting them:

1. Check the context. Often, the passage itself provides clues to what the figure of speech means. For example, what does it mean that the devil is “like a roaring lion” (1 Peter 5:8)? The answer is in the same verse: because he is “looking for someone to devour.” Another example is when the people said to Rehoboam, “Your father put a heavy yoke on us” (1 Kings 12:4). What is being compared to a “heavy yoke”? By following the story, we see that it refers to forced labor (1 Kings 5:13–18; 9:15; etc.).

2. Consider the simple meaning as the most likely one. Sometimes, the meaning of a comparison isn’t directly stated. For example, what does the metaphor “Christ is the head of the church” (Colossians 1:18) mean? Since the context doesn’t directly explain it, we think about what the most likely meaning is. In this case, it likely means that Christ leads the church.

Because ancient figures of speech are not exact, it’s a mistake to over-exegete or over-interpret them. Overinterpretation happens when we assign excessive or unintended meanings to a term that go beyond what the writer intended. For instance, what does it mean that believers were once “dead in transgressions and sins” (Ephesians 2:1)? Does it mean they were literally unable to decide or act, like a physically dead person? The simplest meaning is the most likely: lacking spiritual life (cf. v. 5).

3. Compare with parallel passages. Sometimes similes or metaphors are used in other verses. When we look at those other texts, we may find similarities or clues to what the figure means. For example, take the metaphor “fruit.” It is used in “the fruit of the Spirit” (Galatians 5:22–23), “the fruit of lips that openly profess his name” (Hebrews 13:15), “He cuts off every branch in me that bears no fruit” (John 15:2), and other texts. What is the common, underlying idea of this image (fruit)? By comparing these verses, we see that “fruit” simply refers to a result or outcome.

DEALING WITH FIGURES OF RELATION

Figures of relation are figures of speech where one word is replaced with another that is related or associated with it. Examples include metonymy and synecdoche. But how do we determine the exact meaning if the original word has been replaced?

1. Consider if the literal meaning makes sense. Read the passage carefully and check whether it makes sense if interpreted literally. If not, a figure of speech was likely used. Observe the intriguing detail of this statement: In Matthew 10:34, Jesus said, “I did not come to bring peace, but a sword.” Did Christ literally carry a sword when He came to earth? Even if we try to imagine it, it makes no sense to think He constantly carried one! So, we can conclude that the “sword” (image) is not literal but symbolic—representing division.

2. Check the context. Often the flow of the story provides clues to the meaning of the figure. For example, Jesus prayed in Gethsemane, “My Father, if it is possible, may this cup be taken from me” (Matthew 26:39). Obviously, it wouldn’t make sense if Jesus was referring to a literal cup. If it were, He could have just thrown it away! By reading the following passages, we can conclude that Jesus was referring to His suffering and death on the cross, which would soon take place.

3. Cultural background helps! Reference books such as commentaries, Bible dictionaries, and study Bibles can give details about the cultural background of ancient times. Many biblical images are connected to their lifestyle and culture. For example, in Isaiah 22:22, the Lord said, “I will place on his shoulder the key to the house of David.” Literally placing a key on someone’s shoulder doesn’t seem to make sense, right? That’s because we imagine the small keys we use today. But by checking the cultural background, we learn that keys back then could be 10–20 inches long! And royal keys, like the one in this passage, likely had even more elaborate designs. Keys like that were typically carried on one’s shoulder. Understanding how ancient people viewed this image (key) helps us discover the intended meaning: the key represents visible authority and honor.

Sources and Studies:

Osborne G. P. (2006). “Figures of Speech.” 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘏𝘦𝘳𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘦𝘶𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘭 𝘚𝘱𝘪𝘳𝘢𝘭: 𝘈 𝘊𝘰𝘮𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘩𝘦𝘯𝘴𝘪𝘷𝘦 𝘐𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘥𝘶𝘤𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘵𝘰 𝘉𝘪𝘣𝘭𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘭 𝘐𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘵𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 (2𝘯𝘥 𝘌𝘥𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯). InterVarsity Press
McCain D., Keener C. (2012).”The Rule of Figurative Language.” 𝘜𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘈𝘱𝘱𝘭𝘺𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘚𝘤𝘳𝘪𝘱𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘦𝘴. African Christian Textbooks
Sterrett, N.T. (1974). “Figures of Speech.” 𝘏𝘰𝘸 𝘵𝘰 𝘜𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘠𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘉𝘪𝘣𝘭𝘦. InterVarsity Press